Parental Influence on Childrens Socialization Gender Roles Essay

The article Parental Influence on Children’s Socialization to Gender Roles by Susan D. Witt is about gender socialization and the primary role parent’s play. She states that children learn at an early age what it means to be a boy or girl. Witt states that it is different for a child to grow and not experience some sort of gender bias. The basic expectation during a child’s primary development is socialization that comes about through parents influence. Witt states that a child’s earliest exposure to what it means to be male or female comes from parents. An earliest exposure would be a parent dressing the child in gender specific colors such as pink for girls and blue for boys. Another early exposure to gender socialization would be gender differentiated toys such as dolls for girls and trucks for boys. Children internalize parental messages regarding gender at an early age (Witt, Susan D. 1997). In Witt’s article she states that one study found that children at age two and a half use gender stereotypes in negotiating their world. In a 1992 article by Steinbacher and Holmes it stated that most parents prefer male children throughout the world ad that these people are most likely to use technology for selecting sex of a child this is defiantly a form of gender bias. Parents often encourage their children, both sons and daughters to participate in gender type activities (Witt, Susan D. 1997), such as cooking for girls or playing with trucks for boys. Both parental sex typing is shown in children’s toy preferences and both mother and father have been found to reinforce stereotypes however, fathers have been shown to reinforce these stereotypes more. Children’s bedrooms have shown they are more so than not gender specific. Such as, girls rooms having more pink, dolls and manipulative toys and boys rooms having more blue, tools or sports related themes (Witt, Susan D. 1997). Research has shown that a parent’s influence is a primary socialization tool in a child’s development however, Some studies have suggested that parents as a gender socialization factor have little impact on a child’s sex role development (Witt, Susan D. 1997). Studies have shown that parents treat sons and daughters differently and that this plays a role into adult relationships. Witt states that parental attributes towards their children have a strong impact on their development and self-esteem. Sex role stereotypes are established in early childhood. It is shown that messages about appropriate behavior are based on gender, there are some benefits to strict gender stereotypes such as providing a sense of security and to facilitate decision making (Witt, Susan D. 1997). Witt states a negative factor to gender stereotyping and socialization would be limiting opportunities for both boys and girls based on what is seen to be gender appropriate in society. She also states that androgynous (neutral) individuals have been found to have higher self-esteem and higher levels of identity achievement and more flexibility in dating and relationships. Witt also states that children with parents who have more neutral values tend to be more knowledgeable about non sex type objects and occupations. Families who look at situations with less gender specific roles have been found to score highest in parental warmth and support (Witt, Susan D. 1997). Because of the strong influence of parents regarding gender role socialization those which were to be gender fair and encourage the best in both their sons and/or daughters would do well to adapt to genderless role orientation and encourage the same in their children (Witt, Susan D, 1997). Witt’s article shows her view and others of gender socialization and how it plays a role in a child’s upbringing.

An analysis of Who’s for the Game? By Jessie Pope Essay

War is a highly debatable topic that has influenced many poets. An issue that is important in Jessie Pope’s 1914 poem Who’s for the game? This essay will explore a range of literary devices used within the poem to help analyse the explicit and implicit meanings. Furthermore, it will use appropriate literacy terminology to back up quotes within the poem. Additionally, this essay will analyse the structure of the poem to show how meaning is conveyed. Pope, a naive poet, speaks of a highly debatable topic known to man. However, she makes reference to the war as being a game, she suggests that it is â€Å"The biggest that’s played† though, she does not anticipate the destruction which war may bring. The poem is reliant on propaganda which relied heavily on men’s guilt. It could be seen that this encouraged men to fight and defend their county. This is shown through a literary device, a metaphor. An example being, â€Å"And who wants a seat in the stand † the use of this device prominently states that spectating the war will result in deepest regret because they are not defending their country. It could be suggested that the emphasis of the metaphor helped influence men’s participation in the war. Arguably, though Pope promotes the so called glory of war, it is seen that not protecting their country could result in an invasion. Here, Pope addresses that without soldiers at war, their country could be destroyed. Alternatively, Pope makes use of personification indicating the realism of war. She writes, â€Å"Your country is up to her neck in a fight†. Here, the poet personifies their country as a woman, implying that the war is at its most extreme. This addresses the men that their country needs them the most at this point in time. In contrast, it is clear that the implicit meaning of this literary device exposes the brutality of war, vicious and scary. Jessie Pope has written her poem in a conversational manner making â€Å"Who’s for the game?† memorable and persuasive to the readers. The poet has also made use of a metrical rhythm throughout the entire stanza’s. Furthermore, the poet has made use of rhetorical questions throughout the first three stanzas. She emphasises the word â€Å"Who†, an example being, â€Å"Who’s for the game?† Pope has used the word to present the invitation of recruitment to men. It is seen that these specific questions are without a doubt persuasive, and have encouraged men of all ages to fight  in the war. Throughout the third stanza, it can be seen that Pope has replaced aggressive words with more light hearted descriptions. She speaks of â€Å"Picnic†, a known and enjoyable experience. However, Pope has used the implicit phrase in an informal manner raising the awareness that war is difficult and unpleasant. The structure of the first stanza has a three syllable foot with the first two syllables unstressed and the third one stressed. Similarly, throughout the last three stanzas the poem misses some of the unstressed syllables but the effect of the stressed syllable is predominate. The final line â€Å"And she’s looking and calling for you† draws heavily on the promotion for recruitment. The significance of â€Å"she† refers to the war as an animal being discussed. Having analysed the literary devices, terminology and structure in Who’s for the Game? It is seen that the entire poem draws heavily on men’s guilt who want to protect their country and family, although they are afraid. Pope certainly glorifies war within this poem, thought she raises false hopes for the wrong reasons. The whole poem is justification of the brutality faced when at war.

Assault, Battery, and Crimes against Persons Assignment

Assault, Battery, and Crimes against Persons - Assignment Example This means that there are different degrees of battery depending on the seriousness of the harm inflicted. Assault is not considered anything beyond threats without any physical harm. However, the reason why most of the jurisdictions consider both crimes together is because when one commits battery, they first have the intention of causing harm followed by threats and then they the physical harm is caused. While assault is executed verbally, battery goes beyond to involve both verbal and physical harm (FindLaw, 2014). To draw a clear distinction between battery and assault an example is ideal. An example of an assault is seen when an individual intimidates another and threatens to kill them. However, the person threatening the other does not inflict any physical harm to them. On the other hand, the case of (A) can be regarded as battery where the attacker inflicts harm to (A) by dragging him and ripping off her clothes. The action taken by (A) cannot be considered as assault neither battery since he was on self-defense when he hit the attacker with a rock and ran away. The attacker should be punished for having committed both battery and assault to (A). This is because he had the intention to harm and went ahead to engage in a physical act that was geared towards causing fear and bodily harm to (A). The actions of (A) cannot be regarded as either assault or battery because they were attacked and reacted to the actions of the attacker by using a self-defensive mechanism. The assault and consequent battery against (A) could be narrowed down to consensual touching if the attacker did not inflict any form of harm or create any fear of harm to (A). This is based on the view that the attacker did not have any evil motive of inflicting injury to (A), neither did they attempt to harm them verbally. In consensual touching, the victim (A), should be willing to talk to the attacker without being forced to do

Viral marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Viral marketing - Essay Example The fundamental issue of viral marketing is natural human behavior. Developing marketing strategies, managers take into account social and personal factors, individual characteristics of a target group and their needs. Whether such carryover from business to society will be effective is another matter. Thus, viral marketing does have a stake in the welfare of this nation and it should accept its responsibilities in society and become more intimately involved with societal concerns (Bryce, 2007). As a result, it is necessary to develop further marketing theory, facts, concepts, models, and ideas that interface with such problems. This is grist for social marketing. Unless marketing develops its social awarenesses and implements social actions that are acceptable, government will be forced to do that which marketing has not been willing to do voluntarily, thereby circumscribing the boundaries of marketing management. Following Dunn and Probstein (2003): "Viral marketing is powerful bec ause it is the antithesis of hard sell or "shout" paid advertising. Hotmail experienced this in the on-line buzz it received when it offered free email. Hotmail attached its URL and a brief marketing message to the bottom of every Hotmail" (10). This example illustrates habitual behavior of customers and importance of social networks and personal relations between consumers. Viral marketing allows consumers to achieve a sense of broad community, inspire personal interest and participation. Viral marketing performs its social role in two ways. First, marketing faces social challenges in the same sense as the government and other institutions. But unlike the government, marketing finds its major social justification through offering product-service mixes and commercially unified applications of the results of technology to the marketplace for a profit. Second, it participates in welfare and cultural efforts extending beyond mere profit considerations, and these include various community services and charitable and welfare activities. For example, marketing has had a hand in the renewed support for the arts in general, the increasing demand for good books, the attendance at operas and symphony concerts, the sale of classical records, the purchase of fine paintings through mail-order catalogues, and the attention being given to meeting educational needs. The se worthy activities, while sometimes used as a social measure, do not determine the degree of social concern or the acceptance of social responsibility (Bryce, 2007). Human behavior is explained by communication and personal relations between consumers who share their likes and dislikes with each other. It is assumed that a consumer tells two or three people about the services or products he use or buy. In many cases, consumer preferences are based on word-of-mouth recommendations rather than advertising or promotion. In reality, the improvement of material situations is a stimulus for recognition of intrinsic values, the general lifting of taste, the enhancement of a moral climate, the direction of more attention to the appreciation of arts and esthetics. History seems to confirm this; for great artistic and cultural advancements were at least accompanied by, if not directly stimulated by, periods of

American Type Painting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

American Type Painting - Essay Example Greenberg notes that although painting had started showing signs of modernization earlier than other arts, there are several expandable conventions embedded in the art of painting. There are a great number of conventions that artists cannot isolate and this difficulty in isolation makes painting difficult to expand and change. The author reiterates that the law of modernization is to recognize and immediately discard the facets of a medium that are not essential for its viability. The process of self-purification is observed to have come to a halt in literature as the letters have few conventions to eliminate before reaching those essential to it. Likewise, music has changed over the ages to reach an in expandable state. Most of the facets of music that can be isolated and altered or eliminated have reached the limit of change. The author makes a radical simplification with the hope that the suggested and noted simplifications may be used to overhaul the existing arts to renew vitali ty of the arts in the face of the community that is bent on rationalizing everything as well as maintain irreplaceability. Clement Greenberg was an American specialized in the field of art critic who was closely linked with the American Modern art. His work American Type painting is generally viewed as a response to the Rosenberg’s American Action Painting, but its focus is more specific. It is an observed, unrelenting and sustained attempt to refute the idea that abstract expressionist painting. has fundamentals of a break with the past. The work is a close and meticulous visual analysis to the new critics, based on the most basic element of painting rather than ideas, concepts and psychological states (Frascina, Francis, Charles Harrison & Paul, 1998). It handles the emergence and development of abstract expressionist, which mainly argues for the discrimination of color field painting linking it to impressionism rather than cubism and explains that modern art evolved while artists were perusing advanced pictorial flatness. The title of the essay shows his discomfort with abstract expressionism which he believed was erroneous. Greenberg’s piece viewed abstraction as a facet for modern painting. This is the only way for any painting work to be authentically modern. Each medium had to engage in a process of rationalization which will eventually make it distinct from other related medium. Indeed it was a necessary element of modern art work because painting was being threatened by the introduction of commerce and cliches. Figurative art and the type of anectodal subjects were frequent in the American

Report Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 4

Report - Coursework Example The use of a simple pendulum experiment in the study of motion helps to provide valuable insights into the acceleration of objects due to the gravitation force. In this experiment, a mass is suspended from one end of a piece of string and set in motion to determine the number of oscillations in a particular period. Such an oscillatory motion (to and from motion) is referred to as simple harmonic motion. The time a pendulum takes to swing forth and back is affected by factors such as the pendulum’s length and the acceleration due to the gravitation. A shorter pendulum has a shorter period to complete a single oscillation than a longer pendulum. In view of this, this simple pendulum experiment used the relation between the length applied in the pendulum and the time of oscillation to estimate the value of acceleration due to the gravitation force (Avison & Caribbean Examinations Council, 1988). The simple pendulum experiment was mainly conducted to facilitate the understanding of the relationship between different parameters in an oscillatory system. In addition, the experiment seeks to use its data analysis to facilitate the calculation of a value for the gravitational acceleration (g) and compare this value with the widely accepted value of 9.81 m/s2. If a mass of m hangs from the string in a simple pendulum experiment and sets to swing with small amplitude, the mass will oscillate back and forth in a simple harmonic motion. In this scenario, the mass of the bob becomes the inertia as the tangential component changes the direction every time the bob (mass) passes the center of its swing and hence acting to restore the mass to its midpoint. For this reason, the restoring force, F = - mg sin (á ´â€œ). However, if the angle á ´â€œ is very small, then it is assumed that sin (á ´â€œ) ≈ á ´â€œ, hence, F = - magá ´â€œÃ¢â‚¬ ¦.. Equation (1). The angle á ´â€œ of displacementá ´â€œ can be determined from the equilibrium using the arc length, x,

Communication and Conflict Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Communication and Conflict - Essay Example It is evidently clear from the discussion that one is a good negotiator if he is able to use a set of supposedly sure-fire tactics that enable him to â€Å"get the upper hand† anytime. In this case, negotiation is seen more as a skill which allows one to manipulate the other to concede to his terms (the â€Å"lose† situation). Other contemporary views are that negotiation is settled by a â€Å"series of compromises†, or a debate rather than a conflict management tool; or, that it is â€Å"a game for managing impressions and manipulating information†¦ a struggle for advantage† that would translate to the â€Å"win† situation. One instance when I was on the losing side of a situation was when I was young and needed to ask my parents’ permission to stay overnight at a friend’s house. My father disallowed me, but I made such a big deal of being the only one in the group who wasn’t going. To appease me and end my tantrums, my da d said I could go provided I committed to doing a household chore for two weeks, like washing the dishes. I agreed, and at the time I thought I got a pretty good deal, until afterward when I came home. I found that in exchange for a single night of fun, I had to do fourteen days of dishes. I felt that I was had, that I should have bid it down to just a week. I was too eager to get my parents to permit me to go so that I did not think twice when the condition was given.

Free trade, international business and globalisation continue to Essay

Free trade, international business and globalisation continue to increase inexorabley if they are so beneficial to our world and - Essay Example From the point of view of international business, globalization is not a mere sale in the overseas, but an operation in the overseas. Producing companies or the runners of business decide to produce in foreign countries for making this operation successfully. By producing in the foreign countries, the companies obtain access to the preferred inputs and to markets. The cheap inputs may be labor or raw materials like minerals or agricultural products. The relevant implications of the international business or globalization of business is free trade and competition. The overall interest of most of the global companies lies in free access to market. Similarly, the companies support the reduction of investment barriers in the individual countries. The competition is brought by the companies into the markets where there exists a limited number of local producers. The competition may be with local producers or among these companies them selves (Stewadson, 1999). Positive Roles of Internatio nal trade and business in the era of Globalization Free trade in the context of globalization attribute to i) the demand expansion and increasing returns to scale, ii) technological dynamism and investment, iii) specialization of production, technological advances and spill over, and above all to the iv) employment generation in a country, where the multi national countries produce or run the business. The goods and services which are produced locally have access to a larger market and the demand expansion effect of trade make the economy capable of overcoming the constraints of its local and domestic market size. The increasing returns to scale as a result of access to international markets can further reinforce the benefit of operating at a higher output level. The manufactured goods propose better prospects for export earnings by allowing for a more rapid productivity growth and production expansion and also offer the promise of greater price stability as volumes expand, thereby avoiding the declining terms of trade which hinders the long run economic performance of many developing countries (UNCTAD 2002) Trade leads to acquisition of newly affordable goods that are necessary for technological dynamisms, poverty reduction and increasing economic development. Those goods would not available unless export or import occurs properly and even if they are available, those may not be for the scarce domestic resources. If the foreign earnings from exports are appropriately re-invested, competitiveness would be enhanced and this leads to expansion of exports and greater investment. Trade with sufficient strategic support, incentives and guidance of the government can lead the economy to industrial diversification and other crucial economic development. The experience of South Korea is very relevant in this context. Export earnings have been used to import the selective capital goods and technologies which led to the inception of new and outstanding industries (in wh ich the country had any initial comparative advantage) which are internationally competitive (for eg., Steel and Ship Building). The trade theories indicate that a nation exports the commodities which are produ

Aristotles Account on Happiness Essay Example for Free

Aristotles Account on Happiness Essay In Book X of Nicomachean Ethics by Aristotle, he writes about pleasure and happiness. Aristotle makes the point that happiness and pleasure should not be confused with each other. He argues that pleasure is not good, but a good. Pleasure is not a process, and not all pleasures are desirable, so pleasure is not the supreme Good. However, happiness is not a process. It is an activity that serves as an end itself. Aristotle writes that happiness is our highest goal in life. He touches on the idea of contemplation being our highest rational faculties and like happiness, it is an end in itself. This quality is observed in happiness and contemplation, but not in practical activities. A supreme God could spend an entire lifetime only occupied with contemplation, so humans should strive to achieve this activity through happiness. Aristotle writes that all the moral virtues have to do with aspects of human life. These aspects are necessary in life, but only secondary to the godlike act of contemplation. Humans need to act morally, but it is not a quality needed for contemplation. To contemplate means to admire something, or think about something. I believe that to be truly moral, you often have to contemplate your morals and know what you stand for and believe in. I believe that in order to be moral, you must be capable of deep contemplation and reflection. This differs from Aristotles belief that the two are not connected.

Preventable Medication Errors Essay Example for Free

Preventable Medication Errors Essay In this essay I am going to discuss what the most common medication errors are, as well as discussing how these errors can be prevented. What are Common Medication Errors? â€Å"Drug errors are defined as unintentional acts, committed by healthcare providers involving medications (Medscape, 2007). Medication errors happen due to ignorance and lack of consciously being observant as to what is going on around them. Granted humans are only humans, and being is indefinitely going to result in human error. However, most of the common medication errors are a result of administering the wrong dosage of a medication, mixing medications with alcohol or simply confusing two medications that have similar names, such as Adderall vs. Inderal. â€Å" According to the national Medication Error Reporting Program, confusion caused by similar drug names accounts for up to 25 percent of all reported errors (Caring, 2008). Insulin is a common medication that is incorrectly administered by patients. Patients sometimes â€Å"double up† on the dosage to make up for a missed dose, or think they are in need of the extra medication. Doubling the dosage of any medication will result in very negative consequences or sometimes more often than not death. Ignorance and medication make for a deadly cocktail, knowing this truth, it is important to be aware of the dangers of mixing alcohol with prescribed medications. Synergism is the mixing of prescription medication with alcohol in order to receive a greater effect of the medication. Knowingly or even unknowingly consuming alcohol with prescription medication can result in permanent physical problems and/or even death. Administering the incorrect dosage of medication, as well as mixing medication with alcohol, or making a simple mistake in the identity of a similar medication are just three of numerous errors happening every day in hospitals and outpatient facilities in the United States. It is highly important to leave no room for error as a medical assistant by consciously being aware of these errors and making it a point to avoid them by checking the medications three times, checking the dosage being administered and being aware of any current prescriptions or alcohol history of the patient. What Can You Do to Prevent Medication Errors in the Practice? If the healthcare workers in the field follow the â€Å"Golden Rule† of the 7 patient rights which are: right patient, right medication, right dose, right route, right time, right technique, and right documentation, they will lower the risk of making medication errors. The patients 7 rights were implemented for this very reason, to prevent error in the field and make for a safer healthcare setting. Cognitive psychologists report that the human brain is creative and is wired to make errors (Medscape, 2007) As a medical assistant I can constantly be aware of the risks in not checking medications at least 3 times before administering the medication to a patient that I have personally confirmed to be the recipient of the medication. By making myself aware of a patient’s health history and any possible alcohol use will help ensure the patient’s safety and use of a medication. I believe that it is important in this field to leave nothing to ignorance, but by checking and re-checking the medication prescribed and the routes it is administered will greatly reduce any possible errors in a healthcare practice facility. Conclusion Preventable medication errors can be avoided by following the patient’s 7 rights of drug administration, and educating patients on the safety precautions that should be taken and making them fully aware of the dangers in not doing so. The communication and education of administering medications will help to lower healthcare costs and save the lives of many innocent victims due to medication errors. References: http://www. medscape. org/viewarticle/556487 http://www. caring. com/articles/medication-mistakes http://www. medscape. org/viewarticle/550273

The Use Of Mechanical Ventilators Engineering Essay

The Use Of Mechanical Ventilators Engineering Essay The respiratory system, composed of different structures, is involved in ventilation and gas exchange. Its main function is to provide a surface for gaseous exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide [1]. Gas exchange is performed at the alveoli, specialised cells which are part of the lung parenchyma. It provides oxygen to the blood and removes the carbon dioxide produced in the body as a product of cellular metabolism; for the oxygen to reach the lungs there must be a series of tubular structures that communicate with the outside. The diagram below shows a block diagram of the anatomic structure for the respiratory system (Fig. 1). Figure Block diagram of the Respiratory System anatomic structure Air diffusion into these channels is conducted by the respiratory muscles (intercostals and diaphragm) which increase and decrease rhythmically the size of the thoracic cavity (inspiration and expiration). The pleural cavity contributes on this phenomenon when its negative pressure opposes the elastic recoil of the lung; this action gives place to a conductive portion of the system, whose function is to allow air penetration. In addition the respiratory portion composed bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs and alveoli; establishes homeostasis. Figure Muscles and Pressures involved during breathing The ventilation of the lungs can be measured by studying a gas volume and its variations in the lungs [2]. Boyles, Charles, Daltons and Henrys law of gasses are critical in the understanding of gas exchange, measurement of gas movement take an important part in mechanical ventilation. During breathing movements are cyclic, and volume in the thoracic cavity is changed by the muscles mention before. During inspiration the pressure within the thoracic cavity and lungs is decreased and the same time the volume is increased, allowing air flow in. On the other hand during expiration the elastic lungs and the thoracic wall recoils producing an increase of pressure but a decrease in volume; allow letting air flow out (Fig. 1). Figure Respiratory performance and volume relationships Figure 3 At the same time, inhalation and exhalation allow the mobilization of the volume of gas which can vary depending on the type of respiratory movement and lung elastic forces. Lung capacities are defined by the sum of different volumes. Figure 2 shows a graphic representation of the respiratory performance volume relationships. FCR (Functional Residual Capacity) represents the remaining air after a cycle. VT (Tidal Volume) is the flux of air in a normal inspiration and expiration. IRV (Inspiratory Reserve Volume) is the amount of air moved during a maximum and forced inspiration and results over the Tidal Volume. Similar to IVR, ERV (Expiratory Reserve Volume) is the amount of air mobilised during a maximum and force expiration resulting below the Tidal Volume. The vital capacity is the sum of IRV, VT, and ERV. VR (Residual Volume) as its name says, is the amount of air remained in lungs after a maximum exhalation. The IC (Inspiratory Capacity) is the flux of air after a quiet cycle. A nd finally the TLC (Total Lung Capacity) corresponds to the total volume of gas remaining in the lung after a maximal and forced inspiration. Volumes and lung capacities may be altered in different diseases; its measurement is a critical element for diagnosis, performed by pulmonary function tests. The respiratory parameters: compliance, lung elasticity, intrathoracic pressure, airway resistance, intra-alveolar pressure; help measure the strength in muscles when breathing. Airway resistance is determined by the Poiseuille Law (eq. 1): {1} Where ÃŽÂ · represents the viscosity of the fluid, l is the longitude in the airways, and r is the radio on the airways. Resistance has a great significance in pulmonary physiology; and it is analysed by the ratio of the pressure differential flow. The airway resistance can be increased significantly in the presence of disease such as Bronchitis, Asthma, and Emphysema among others. In addition a great amount of patients admitted to intensive care have need of some form of respiratory support; due primarily to hypoxaemia or ventilatory failure. Respiratory support ranges from oxygen therapy by face mask, through non-invasive techniques such as continuous positive airways pressure, to full ventilatory support with endotracheal intubation[3]. Figure Block Diagram of a basic mechanical ventilator A mechanical ventilator is an automatic machine, designed to provide all or part of the work the body must produce to move air (gas) from the inside to the outside and vice versa. Furthermore mechanical ventilators are designed to transmit energy applied in a predetermined manner to perform a specific task. Interface between machine and patient stable, energy source, control system (for timing and size of the breaths regulations) and monitoring (device performance and patients condition) are the general requirements for ventilators (Fig. 4). A further analysis as well as comparison of this equipment will be made along the paper, with the purpose of a better understanding of its designed and future developments. Current State of the Art Since the invention of artificial respiratory supply, mechanical ventilators have evolved in the past 40 years. There are five generations of mechanical ventilators where changes have been made in order to present a better apparatus. The first generation consisted of only one mode of ventilation, and the electronics used was primitive compared to the one used nowadays. The equipment was no safe since the control with the user was not precise and it did not count with any alarm system. The second generation provided basic alarms, containing electronic circuitry as well as an analogue control of fluid. A major evolution took place on the third generation; digital electronics, microprocessors, were employed for most of the functions. The fourth generation included modern displays such as CRT or LCD ensuring a better patient care. The generation currently used is the fifth generation which features a better onscreen display control. It is also made by advanced logarithms that permit graphic display, calculation of lungs mechanical properties, and system diagnostics. Principles of Operation Mechanical ventilation is all different types of procedures that provide artificial respiration employing machinery to meet the respiratory function of a person who cannot perform it by itself [4]. In addition Mechanical Ventilation (MV) is the product of interaction between a ventilator and a patient, and through this equipment parameters of volume, flow, pressure and time are controlled. Considered as a generator of positive pressure that supplies active phase of the respiratory cycle; there are basically four types of MV: controlled by pressure, time, volume and flow. Mechanical ventilation systems create an intermittent positive pressure where air or a gas mixture enriched in oxygen is insufflated in the patients airway. Pressure in the airway at the end of passive expiration and that at the same time goes beyond atmospheric pressure is known as positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) [5]. PEEP is extremely important in effects and mechanisms of the respiratory system. It plays major roles in gas exchange, lung mechanics, and hemodynamic effects. Some effects in lung mechanics it prevents the lung from collapsing, increases FRC among others.[5] In order to provide respiratory support, a MV such as the one in figure is used. Figure Flow and control of gas exchange during artificial ventilation Input of this system provides O2 as a medicinal gas; and in the case of portable ventilators the medicinal gas can be supplied by a dry air compressor. Ventilatory gas is passed through a pressure regulator; which is in charge of preserving the preset pressure for the inspiratory gas and ensures the integrity of the airway. The gas flown to the patient is allocated by an electro-valve (Fig. 5); this remains energised until the end of the inspiratory time previously programmed, when de-energised the gas flow is ceased. Finally the expiratory electro-valve is activated causing the air exhaled by the patient to be expelled to the environment by a biological filter that prevents the contamination of this. Models of Ventilator-Patient Interaction Figure Model representing breathing, were a rigid flow conducting tube is connected to an elastic compartment The Respiratory System can be modelled to illustrate the relations amongst the variables of interest; providing a better understanding of patient-equipment interaction. The model most frequently used is shown in figure where a rigid flow conducting tube is connected to an elastic compartment [6]. When airway pressure goes higher than the base line, the inspiration is assisted (Fig. 6)The Transrespiratory pressure (eq.2) leads inspiration, and is the pressure at the airway opening, ,minus the pressure at the body surface: {2} At the same time has two components, transairway pressure (eq. 3) and transthoracic pressure (eq. 4): {3} {4} A mathematical model that represents volume, pressure and flow during ventilation is known as the equation of motion for the respiratory system [6] (eq. 5) : {5} Where is the pressure generated by the ventilator, is the pressure generated by the ventilator muscles, is the respiratory system elastance, is the respiratory system resistance, and is lung volume where the derivate of volume with respect of time is the flow in the system. Table (1) compares typical values against values during mechanical ventilation [6]. Table Pressures and Volumes during Mechanical ventilation Typical Values Mechanical Ventilation The model provides the basis for monitoring the patients current condition, and it is done in terms of R and E which are mechanical properties. Figure Electrical model representing breathing composed of a RC circuit Another model used for representation is the electrical model (Fig. 7); this model is analogous to an electrical circuit consisting of a resistor and a capacitor (RC circuit), a power supply, which in this case represents the pressure generated by a mechanical ventilator. The electric current stands for the flow of air in the system. In this model, pressure, volume and flow are variables (functions of time) while the resistance and compliance are constant [4]. Second Law of Kirchooff can be used to analyse the electrical model and the following equation(eq. 6) can be derived: {6} Current and charge can be related by , the electrical parameters of the circuit can be now represented by the ventilator variables. When applying a pressure to the input of the system (output pressure of the ventilator), the volume varies according to the following differential equation (eq. 7) the total pressure applied is equal to the sum of the differences in pressure due to the compliance of the system and to the resistance of the airway: {7} According to this system is the output pressure of the ventilator, the inspiratory volume, and is the compliance of the lung [4]. Operating Modes Mechanical ventilators count with different operating modes, which are the manner the ventilator ensures that the patient is provided by the appropriate minute ventilation; satisfying the respiratory needs without damaging any pulmonary tissue. Operating modes can be identified by: breathing pattern, Control type, Control Strategy [6]. When specifying just the breath control variable (Primary Breath Control), there are three approaches: pressure control, volume control and dual control modes. Pressure control (PC) is used when patients can initiate respiration; pressure in the airway is increased during inspiration. Volume control (VC) employs a control system to guarantee that a set tidal volume is distributed during the inspiratory cycle. The Dual Control (DC) is simply a combination of both, used in order to provide minute ventilation while maximizing patient synchrony[6]. Breath sequence is the other component of breathing pattern operating mode. There are two ways airflow can be delivered using this mode, mandatory or spontaneous. The difference between the two of these is that on mandatory breath the ventilator initiates and establishes the tidal volume, Vt. Contrary to mandatory breath on spontaneous breath the patient establishes and starts its own breathing. From these, three different modes of breath sequence can be delivered: Continuous Mandatory Ventilation (CMV), Continuous Spontaneous Ventilation (CSV), and Intermittent Mandatory Ventilation (IMV). CVM and CSV, all breaths are mandatory or spontaneous respectively; however in IMV breaths can be either mandatory or spontaneous [6]. Controls In order to select breathing mode and ventilation pattern parameters, controls are used. There are two different ways on which breathing can be controlled, and at the same time there are control strategies which depend on the variables and parameters set to obtain this. A system can be controlled by an open loop or closed loop (Fig. 8). Like any open loop system, there is no feedback, and the system could be affected by mechanical changes in the lungs, patients ventilatory efforts and leaks [6]. Figure Control systems used for mechanical ventilation Closed loop sense breathing variables such as pressure, volume, and flow to provide a feedback signal which is compared to the desired value set at the input. There are different types of closed loop systems depending on the number of variables used. The instruments used to measure volume-flow rate are referred to as volume flowmeters; they may be classified as rotameters, penumotachographs, hot-wire anemometers, time-of-flight flowmeters, ultrasonic flowmeters, and vortex flowmeters [2]. Depending on their principle of operation, flowmeters can be classified in four main categories: rotating-vane, ultrasonic, thermal-convection, and differential pressure flowmeters. Rotating-vane Flowmeters These types of sensors contain a small motor or turbine which rotates with airflow, and then flow rate is related to the revolution of the rotor. This type of flowmeter is commonly used in ventilator machines and respiratory monitoring [2]. The spins are detected optically and converted into voltage to be recorded or displayed. Ultrasonic Flowmeters Ultrasonic flowmeters can measure instantaneous flow and the effect of the flowing gas on the transit time of the ultrasonic signal [7]. A crystal is used for transmitting and receiving and it is placed externally and obliquely to the axis of the tube through which the gas flows [7]. The time elapsed will depend not only on the velocity, but on the temperature as well as composition of the gas analysed. One main advantage of this type of transducer is that unidirectional flow can be measured, which is applicable for clinical monitoring. Thermal-Convection Flowmeters Thermal sensing technologies are usually made of hot wires, metal film, and thermistol which all use heat to sense gas flow. The wires are heated by an electric current and the heat transfer is used to measure the gas flow [2]. The wire is heated above flow gas temperature, to associate temperature differences; a metal mesh is placed at both ends of the tube. This type of sensing is limited to only one flow direction, more sensors can be located in the tube for multiple directions and for breathing a calibration factor must be considered. [7]. Differential Pressure Flowmeters Flowmeters that use the relationship of pressure drop with airflow through a system. There include elements such flow resistors. Common Failures Figure Closed system during mechanical ventilation The most common failures presented in MV are mainly as a consequence of poor maintenance and user error. Leaks in the circuit due to bad connections or due by perforations in tube are a frequent dysfunction. Leaks stop the proper delivery of tidal volume as well as an accurate sensing flow from the ventilator. PEEP can also be affected by this interfering with O2 saturation (Fig. 9). At times, when an patient with intubation is not able to trigger the ventilator, or the ventilator senses by mistake a patients effort and delivers breaths, is known as patient-ventilator dyssynchrony. As a result the machine delivers an unsuitable breath to the rate of the patients inspiratory efforts. This type of error is also identified as trigger failure or desynchronisation, mismatching, and fighting the ventilator [8]. One cause for patient-ventilator dyssynchrony is fixing the trigger sensitivity improperly. When a desynchronisation with the patients efforts to initiate a breath exists, work of breathing can occur which can be accompanied with respiratory distress preventing pulmonary gas exchange.. Another usual failure is due to user error with the interface. MVs are complex equipments, and the need of the clinician to be familiar with the machine is crucial. It is important that Mechanical Ventilators count with an audible and visual alarm when detecting a leakage or disconnection. Possible hazards to humans Problems may occur while using a mechanical ventilator, especially with patients that been required the use of a MV for a prolonged amount of time. The risks occasioned by the use of respiratory support can lead to severe harmful or even death. Common hazards that may occur due to the use of a ventilator are: infections, pneumothorax, and lung injury. Infections The most common risk reported is acquiring Ventilator-associated pneumonia, which is caused by an infection. The tube allows germ (bacteria) to penetrate more easily into the lungs. This can cause pneumonia. Pneumonia can be a serious problem and may mean that a person may not be able to initiate respiration leading to a longer use of a MV. In addition a recent study reported factors related such as the development of shock, and renal failure [9]. In order to prevent infections a number of control procedures can be performed, and these include maintaining the ventilator as well as the breathing circuit [8]. Pneumothorax Occasionally when a part of the lung is weak, this may become over full of air and as a result an air leak may occur. The leak allows air into the space between the lung and chest wall. The air in this region occupies space in a manner that the lung begins to collapse. If there is air leakage, a chest tube into is used to drain the excess air; allowing the lung to re-expand and stop the leak. Lung Injury The pressure generated by introducing air into the lungs with a ventilator can damage the lungs. Furthermore, very high levels of oxygen can also be harmful to the lung. As a solution to try to keep this risk to a minimum the lowest pressure necessary as well as the only oxygen needed is supplied. Prolonged intubation usually defined as a period longer than 48 hours [10] may lead to swallowing dysfunction. This is mainly caused by impairing glottic closure reflex, reducing subglottic pressure, limiting laryngeal elevation, desensitizing the larynx and hypopharynx, and causing disuse muscle atrophy of the larynx and pharynx [10]. Advantages and limitations of various techniques Once analysed the principles of operations and risks of Mechanical Ventilators, for a better understanding of these is necessary to mention the advantages and disadvantages that they could bring. The impact MV have had over the past 40 years is massive due to the fact that mechanical ventilators provide vital support. Nowadays ventilators found in the market present vast options in terms of modes, control and displays which in many cases can result complicated and the knowledge of these is required[8]. In addition features need to be evaluated in order to establish which configuration mode is suitable for each patient [8]. Ideally hospitals should acquire equipment that incorporates the latest development in ventilation; however as mention before this could lead to complications and misuse of the devices. Requesting companies training to all staff involved in the use, handling and care of the equipment helps to reduce the risk [11].The complicity of the equipment could be considered as a disadvantage of MV, nevertheless ventilators with good human factors design provide major advantage [8]. Mechanical ventilators, being devices that provide respiratory support the duration and need may vary from patient to patient; age is also an important factor as well as the condition. Ventilators are usually used in patients that are in Intensive Care Unit (ICU) and after remaining in intubation after 48 hours the risk to the patient increases. Weaning from mechanical ventilation (MV) permits patients to restart spontaneous breathing steadily; however some risks are involved [12] and are mentioned in section. Risks and hazards to patients should always be considered when dealing with medical devices; however the benefits that they bring play a major role. But still as an advantage mechanical ventilators as mentioned before, bring vital support where initiation of breathing or respiration cannot be performed by the patient. Critical Comparison Figure Piston pump in HFOV Differences between each mechanical ventilator is defined by their operation mode which establish the flow pattern, pressure and volume delivered to the patient with the purpose of controlling alveolar ventilation and as a result achieve the goals of mechanical ventilation. Ventilation modes are determined by the combination of breathing pattern, type of ventilation and control. As for this MV operation mode is going to vary according to the age, and state of the patient, in a way that ventilation is provided and the risk is minimal. Requirements As mentioned before, the continuous use of ventilators may induce injury to the lungs. Air strained outside the normal air spaces creates a swelling pressure that may injure alveoli. The name of this condition is Barotrauma, and malfunction to the mechanical ventilation may occur. High pressures or volumes during inspiration, or when extreme PEEP is used are causes of Barotrauma. There has not been found an association of clinical injury with the level of pressure used, the problem is estimated to be an over expedition of volume [13]. High frequency ventilation(HFV) is a ventilation strategy for patients with respiratory failure; providing a small source of tidal volumes (VT) which is in most of the cases less than the anatomic dead space volume, with respiratory rates above 150rpm. Modern Research studies have shown that HFV can help reduce barotraumas in normal and injured lungs [14]. Figure Flow during high frequency ventilation HFV can be classified according to the source that generates their frequency and the type of exhalation phase; there are four types: High Frequency Jet Ventilation (HFJV), High Frequency Oscillatory Ventilation (HFOV), High Frequency Flow Interruption (HFFI), and High Frequency Positive Pressure Ventilation. The most commonly is used is the HFOV where in a continuous positive air pressure circuit the frequencies are oscillated by a piston pump (Fig. 10). During inspiration, each high frequency pulse in the flow creates a profile shaped like a bullet (Fig. 11), with the central molecules moving on beyond the airway than those found in the periphery. Table (2) describes and compares main differences between common ventilation and high frequency ventilation. Table Comparison between HF ventilator and Conventional ventilator HFV Conventional Ventilator Frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz) Frequency is measure in rpm Uses Displacement Volume (Vd) Uses Tidal Volume (Vt) Volume per minute is measured: Volume per minute is measured: Medical Devices Available on the Market There is a wide range of medical ventilators currently available on the market, and they all offer variety of options ranging in modes, variables monitored and ways of control [8] . Specific requirements and recommendations can be separated according to the complexity based on their performance. Some of the most common brands available nowadays are listed in table (3), and they all offer ventilators that may vary according to specific needs. Table Brands currently available Brand Model ACOMA ART-100 ART-21EX BIO-MED DEVICES CV-3 CV-4 DRAEGER Carina Home Evita 2 dura Evita 4 Evita XL Oxylog 1000 Oxylog 2000 Oxylog 3000 Savina EVENT MEDICAL Inspiration Inspiration LS GE HEALTHCARE(DATEX-OHMEDA) Centiva/5 Engstrom Carestation HAMILTON GALILEO GOLD RAPHAEL COLOR IMPACT Unit-Vent 754 INTERMED INTER5 PLUS/ GMX INTER PLUS VAPS/ GMX KIMURA KV-3N MAQUET Servo-i(Adult:Infant) Servo-S ( Adult: Pediatric) NEWPORT E100M E150 Breeze E360 E500 Wave PULMONETIC SYSTEMS/VYASIS HEALTHCARE LTV 900 LTVO 950 LTV 1000 RESPIRONICS Esprit SAIME ELISEE SIARE Siaretron 1000 ICU Siaretron 1000 IPER Siaretron 3000 ICU TAEMA eXtreria Horus 4 NEFTIS icu TECME Neumovent Graph TYCO HEALTHCARE PURITAN BENNETT 740 760 840 VERSAMED iVent201 VYASYS HEALTHCARE AVEA Vela Vela + Vela Comprehensive Future Stage of Development Advanced features like recording and accurate and advanced predictions will come in a future state of development. In addition the ability to link multiple devices on one is now available, where the ventilator monitor can display lectures from other devices. Portable devices are starting to become more common, they are light and compact devices. Important upgrades have been made to portable devices, where advanced features are now presented. Current portable ventilators present various modes of ventilation and longer power supply. In order to avoid complexity, it is important when developing new features to consider the principal use of ventilators, which is respiratory supply. In addition for longer term care many features may not be used and costs can increase. Conclusions Mechanical ventilators are vital equipments that provide vital support to a patient. They provide artificial respiration to patients that cannot breathe on their own. Their principle of operation is based on mechanical exchange of gases, and their circuitry includes electro-valves for their control and flowmeters as transducers. MV can become very complex devices, training of clinicians using them is crucial in order to avoid risks to patients. Hazards to patients may occur when used for more than 48 hours, however new techniques like high frequency ventilation can reduce this. There is a wide range of devices present on the market and they all vary on their modes of operation. Portable devices are now popular and present important features. Mechanical ventilators are used every day in hospitals and represent a critical part on vital support.

A Look at Flannery O’Connor’s A Good Man is Hard to Find Essay

A Look at Flannery O’Connor’s A Good Man is Hard to Find In the short story A Good Man is Hard to Find, Flannery O’Connor uses many different tactics to accurately portray the south in the 1950’s. O’Connor uses her style, themes, and point of view to tell a story of a family outing gone wrong. The story involves a grandmother, her only son and his wife, and their two bratty children, June Star and John Wesley. On their way to Florida, the grandmother convinces the family to detour to see an old house, and while heading towards their destination, the car overturns. The much-feared criminal, The Misfit, an escaped murderer, encounters the family, and offers to help them. The Grandmother immediately notices the man as The Misfit, and verbally acknowledges that fact. â€Å"‘You’re The Misfit!’ she said. â€Å"I recognized you at once!’† (p. 687) The Misfit has the husband and son killed relatively quickly, and even after much conversation and pleading, he kills the rest of the family. A Good Man is Hard to Find includes a lot of character development, a unique point of view, and the use of foreshadowing. O’Connor does this through her characters, setting, and details in the story. The grandmother is a classic old southern woman, who is eccentric and who may come off as a racist. However, the woman may not be racist, but rather just naive and too set in her ways to deal with the changes present at the time. As the grandmother said, â€Å"Oh look at that cute little pickaninny! †¦ Wouldn’t that make a picture now?† (p. 681) When O’Connor was writing she might not have meant to show that the grandmother was a racist, but rather just that she was out of tune with the rest of the world. The grandmother was also portrayed as Christian, one who was displeased with others who did not act in a Christian manner, and with the society as a whole. She discusses this with Red Sammy, a restaurant owner and war veteran. Red Sammy said â€Å"Eve rything is getting terrible. I remember the day you could go off and leave your screen door unlatched. Not no more.† (p.683) O’Connor often shows through the story the degeneration of the nuclear family. She does this not only through the incident at Red Sammys, but also through the child characters, John Wesley and June Star. The father, Bailey, tends to ignore the grandmother, and has failed to teach his children respect and manners. â€Å"T... ...hance of survival. Other mentions of death throughout the story include when the grandmother made sure to dress in her best clothing in case â€Å"anyone seeing her dead on the highway would know at once that she was a lady.† (p. 680) This turns out to be just as the story goes, the grandmother being the only one who is actually left by the side of the road. An additional reference is the mention of â€Å"five or six graves† (p. 681) at the side of the road and the town name â€Å"Toombsboro† (p. 684) and the â€Å"hearse-like† (p. 686) automobile are use to remind everyone of the ultimate outcome in life. The gruesome and surprising ending not only shocks readers, but also it may cause them to think about their life more in-depth. The comment from The Misfit may allow people to connect themselves, and realize that they may not be as far away from the grandmother as they may think. â€Å"‘She would have been a good woman,’ The Misfit said, ‘if it had been somebody there to shoot her every minute of her life.’† (p. 692) Many people might reflect on this statement, and realize that they, too, are guilty of being, as so called, a â€Å"good man† or â€Å"good woman,† only when they are required to do so.

Does Vision And Mission Emerge Essay -- essays research papers fc

Does vision and mission emerge from the particular culture of a firm or is it dictated by strategy?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The culture of a firm and the formation of strategy are two very important aspects of an organisation. The world contains many different people all with different values, ideas and beliefs. These differences create a diverse range of cultures within organisations, some having bigger influences than others. Strategies within organisations are highly dynamic and complex, and can have positive and negative effects on an organisation. Vision and mission are concepts that many believe are vital for an organisation to operate effectively and to the best of its abilities. Andrew Campbell (1991) , a prominent writer on vision and mission, believes that both the culture and the strategy of a firm come together side by side to build an overall definition of mission for a firm. The paper will be based around Campbell’s perception and whether either culture or strategy has a greater part to play in an organisation’s mission.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Culture and strategy will be examined in a context relevant to the title question. Hofstede (1993) defines culture as ‘the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes one group or category of people from another’. Hofstedes research of different organisations and countries allowed him to make predictions on the way different societies operate, including their management processes and the theories that would be used in management. Morgan (1996) refers to culture as ‘the pattern of development reflected in a society’s system of knowledge, ideology, values, laws, and day-to-day ritual’. In subsequent writings he expands on organisational culture as ‘self-organising and is always evolving’ and also ‘ we are observing an evolved form of social practice that has been influenced by many complex interactions between people, events, situations, actions, and general circumstances’. These broad definitions of o rganisational culture are important bases and will be used throughout.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Defining strategy is a difficult process because it is a complex concept that has many forms and is constantly changing. Andrews (1987) attempt is a comprehensive definition... ...(1980) Defining the Business – The Starting Point of Strategic Planning New Jersey, Prentice Hall Collins, J.C. & Porras, J.I. (1996) Built to Last – The Successful Habits of Visionary Companies Kent, Century Ltd. De Wit, B. & Meyer, R. (1998) Strategy – Process, Content, Context London, International Thomson Business Press Fawn, J. & Cox, B. (1985) Corporate Planning in Practice London, Kogan Page Ltd. Morgan, G. (1996) Images of Organizations London, Sage Publications Porter, M.E. (1985) Competitive Advantage New York, The Free Press Journals Baetz, M.C. & Bart, C.K. (1996) Developing Mission Statements Which Work Long Range Planning 29 (4), pp.526-533 Campbell, A. & Yeung, S (1991) Creating a Sense of Mission Long Range Planning August pp.10-20 Campbell, A. (1997) Mission Statements Long Range Planning 30 (6), pp.931-932 David, F.R. (1989) How Companies Define Their Mission Long Range Planning 22 (1),pp.90-97 Piercy, N.F. (1994) Mission Analysis: An operational approach Journal of General Management 19 (3), pp.1-19 Hofstede, G (1993) Cultural Constraints in Management Theories Academy of Management Excutive 7 (1)

Political Philosophy and Major Theme Machiavelli Essay

Machiavelli had a true and abiding love for Florence. He wanted to make Florence great and also find himself a job, as he lost his when the Medici family came into power. He dedicated his book on political science, The Prince, to Lorenzo Medici in the hopes that Lorenzo would be impressed and offer him a job. However, Lorenzo ignored the book and Machiavelli. The Prince is a didactic examination of political power, how to achieve it, maintain it, and expand it. Machiavelli does not take into consideration what is morally right, or amoral, only what is useful and useless. The book is more like a technical manual, and technical manuals only state the facts. The book defines what turns a mere man into a great ruler and what turns a great ruler into a mere man. Machiavelli’s book of politics is unique because it is so realistic. He does not place man in a false utopia where man live in eternal peace and harmony, everyone doing good to one another for the good of the public whole. Rather, he writes a manual where there are political conflicts and tensions. Machiavelli writes how a prince should deal with these conflicts and tensions. He condones cruelty, punishment, religion, rewards, compassion, and integrity to achieve power. Whatever means to achieve the end. QUESTIONS 2. Discuss Machiavelli’s â€Å"heroes†. Select one and discuss the traits that he finds admirable in that person. Be specific. Machiavelli’s heroes are Moses, Cyrus, Romulus and Theseus. They all formed civilizations. When Machiavelli talks about his heroes he is speaking of how to acquire a princedom. As Isiah Berlin says in his essay, Machiavelli admired these heroes because they were high-minded, tough, and tough enough to use brutality against the few, to help the public good of the princedom. He especially admired Moses because he was worthy to talk to God. Moses had the opportunity to create a new civilization with the Israelites because they were being treated badly by the Pharaoh . Therefore, Moses took advantage of their discontent with their new master and led them in a revolt. Eventually creating a new civilization. Machiavelli admired Moses because of his strength of character that carried him through the difficult trouble of gaining power. 3. Discuss Machiavelli’s opinions on the uses of cruelty to accomplish certain goals. The Prince is about the ways to achieve political power, with no preference for the way in which it is achieved. Machiavelli does not advocate unnecessary cruelty. His book is only about how to obtain and keep a princedom. Machiavelli believes that cruelty is sometimes necessary to acquire or/and keep political power. Machiavelli recognized that in the time he lived a political ruler would have to use cruelty, he writes, â€Å"The new prince, above all princes, cannot possibly avoid the name of cruelty†. He also states in Chapter VIII that cruelty may be useful sometimes in achieving certain ends, but it would bring no glory. 1. What does Machiavelli think of â€Å"the people† in the course of human history? Machiavelli refers to â€Å"the people† as â€Å"the masses†, lots of times. He realizes that â€Å"the people† are a dominant force in politics, whether it is a democracy or a republic. When a princedom is added to an already established kingdom, he writes that the customs must be the same between the two and that no new taxes or laws should be enacted. To do so would cause the people to revolt and the recently acquired princedom would be in jeopardy. Machiavelli realizes a prince cannot keep political power if his people hate him. A hostile population may abandon him or turn against him when hostile noble attack, then the prince will lose the kingdom. Machievelli also believed that a prince may â€Å" make an example of a very few† be execution of severe punishment, but that letting the population bring disorder among themselves was bad for the whole community. Therefore, Machiavelli was wary of â€Å"mob rule†. Machiavelli realizes that â€Å"the people† have to be relatively happy for a princedom to be healthy. 4. In general, what is Machiavelli telling his â€Å"Prince† with regard to the use of power? Machiavelli’s entire book is about power. How to achieve a princedom with power. Power over â€Å"the people† with cruelty (or punishment); power over other princes with deceit or a bigger army or powerful friends; power over the army with cruelty and/or money. He speaks of control over captured cities by dividing them into factions, disarming the people or forming hostilities among the people. All of these things achieve power. A prince must also be more powerful than his counselors, listening and gleaning knowledge but making his own decisions; because a weak prince will do whatever his counselors tell him and then his counselors will take over the princedom. EVALUATION OF BOOK I think this is one of the most interesting books I’ve read in a while. It’s dry, realistic, terse, and to the point. It’s also very easy to read (I was pleasantly surprised). All of the historical connotations are especially interesting. I read that Hitler, Mussolini, and Lenin found Machiavelli valuable reading; I would like to delve more into that one!! In the Renaissance religion and learning were beginning to be thought of as separate and Machiavelli was a man of his time. His book was entirely didactic and did not have a trace of religion. He spoke of cruelty and deceit in matter-of-fact tones and kept his book strictly a manual, with no judgements. In our modern time, we have to discern his book in the same manner that he wrote it. If we do not, we will not understand what he was writing.

Geology Midterm Review

Introduction to Geology GEOL-101 Midterm 1 Review Based on the textbook: Understanding Earth, 6th Edition, by Grotzinger and Press CH 1: earth system Summary The human creative process, field and lab observations, and experiments help geoscientists formulate testable hypotheses (models) for how the Earth works and its history. A hypothesis is a tentative explanation focusing attention on plausible features and relationships of a working model. If a testable hypothesis is confirmed by a large body of data, it may be elevated to a theory. Theories are abandoned when subsequent investigations show them to be false.Confidence grows in those theories that withstand repeated tests and successfully predict the results of new experiments. A set of hypothesis and theories may become the basis of a scientific model that represents an entire system too complicated to replicate in the laboratory. Often models are tested and revised in a series of computer simulations. Confidence in such a model grows as it successfully predicts the behavior of the system. The elevations of Earth topography averages 1–2 kilometers above sea level for land features and 4–5 kilometers below sea level for features of the deep ocean.The principle of uniformitarianism states that geological processes have worked in the same way throughout time. Earth’s interior is divided into concentric layers (crust, mantle, core) of sharply different chemical composition and density. The layered composition of the Earth is driven by gravity. Only eight of the 100 or so elements account for 99 percent of Earth’s mass. The lightest element (oxygen) is most abundant in the surface crust and mantle, while the densest (iron) makes up most of what is found deep in the core. Earth’s major interacting systems are the climate system, the plate tectonic system, and the geodynamic system.The climate system involves interactions among the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. The plat e tectonic system involves interactions among the lithosphere, asthenosphere, and deep mantle. The geodynamic system involves interactions within the central core that produce occasional reversals of Earth’s magnetic field. As the Earth cooled, an outer relatively rigid shell, called the lithosphere, formed. Dynamic processes driven by heat transfer, density differences, and gravity broke the outer shell into plates that move around the Earth at rates of centimeters per year.Major components (atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere) of Earth’s surface systems are driven mostly by solar energy. Earth’s internal heat energizes the lithosphere, asthenosphere, deep mantle, and outer and inner core. Terms and Concepts Asthenosphere Convection Core Continental lithosphere Continental crust Earth systems Geology Inner core Lithosphere Mantle Oceanic lithosphere Oceanic crust Plate tectonic system Principle of uniformitarianism Scientific method Topography CH 2: plate tecton ics Summary For over the last century some geologists have argued for the concept of continental drift based on: he jigsaw-puzzle fit of the coasts on both sides of the Atlantic the geological similarities in rock ages and trends in geologic structures on opposite sides of the Atlantic fossil evidence suggesting that continents were joined at one time the distribution of glacial deposits as well as other paleoclimatic evidence In the last half of the twentieth century the major elements of the plate tectonic theory were formulated. Starting in the 1940s (WWII), ocean floor mapping began to reveal major geologic features on the ocean floor.Then, the match between magnetic anomaly patterns on the seafloor with the paleomagnetic time scale revealed that the ocean floor had a young geologic age and was systematically older away from the oceanic ridge systems. The concepts for seafloor spreading, subduction, and transform faulting evolved out of these and other observations. According to the theory of plate tectonics, the Earth’s lithosphere is broken into a dozen moving plates. The plates slide over a partially molten, weak asthenosphere, and the continents, embedded in some of the moving plates, are carried along.There are three major types of boundaries between lithospheric plates: divergent boundaries, where plates move apart convergent boundaries, where plates move together and one plate often subducts beneath the other transform boundaries, where plates slide past each other Volcanoes, earthquakes, and crustal deformation are concentrated along the active plate boundaries. Mountains typically form along convergent- and transform-plate boundaries. Where divergent-plate boundaries are exposed on land, subsiding basins and mafic volcanism are typical.Various methods have been used to estimate and measure the rate and direction of plate movements. Today seafloor-spreading rates vary between a few to 24 cm per year. Seafloor isochrons provide the basis for reconstructing plate motions for about the last 200 million years. Distinct assemblages of rocks characterize eachtype of plate boundary. Using diagnostic rock assemblages embedded in continents and paleo-environmental data recorded by fossils and sedimentary rocks, geologists have been able to reconstruct ancient plate tectonic events and plate configurations.Driven by Earth’s internal heat, convection of hot and cold matter within the mantle, the force of gravity and the existence of an asthenosphere are important factors in any model for the driving mechanism of plate tectonics. Currently studies of the plate-driving forces focus on discovering the exact nature of the mantle convection. Questions being addressed include: Where do the plate driving forces originate? At what depth does recycling occur? What is the nature of rising Convection Currents? The assembly and subsequent break up of Pangaea represent a striking example of the effects of plate tectonics acting over ge ologic time.The story begins with the breakup of the ancient supercontinent of Rodinia 750 million years ago. Plate tectonic processes dispersed the fragments of Rodinia forming a system of ancient continents that existed from the late Proterozoic through much of the Paleozoic. Continued tectonic movement eventually resulted in a set of continental collisions and reformation of the ancient continents into Pangaea. Assembly was completed during the early Triasic, about 240 million years ago. Then, about 200 million years ago the rift that would evolve into the Atlantic Ridge began to open and the separation of Pangaea was underway.By the beginning of the Cenezoic, India was well on its way to Asia, and the Tethys sea that had separated Africa from Eurasia began to close into the modern inland sea that we know as the Mediterranean. Continued changes during the Cenozoic produced our modern world and its geography. Terms and Concepts Continental drift Continent-continent convergent boun dary Convergent boundary Divergent boundary Island arc Isochron Lithospheric plates Magnetic anomaly Magnetic time scale Mid-ocean ridge Mountain range Ocean-ocean convergent boundary Ocean-continent convergent boundary Pangaea Plate tectonicsSeafloor spreading Spreading center Subduction Transform boundary Wegener’s hypothesis CH 3: earth materials Summary Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic solids with a specific crystal structure and chemical composition. Minerals form when atoms or ions chemically bond and come together in an orderly, three-dimensional geometric array—a crystal structure. Chemical bonding may occur either as a result of simple electrostatic attraction (ionic bond) or electron sharing (covalent bond). The strength of the chemical bonds and the crystalline structure determine many of the physical properties, e. . , hardness, cleavage of minerals. Silicate minerals are the most abundant class of minerals in the Earth’s crust and mantle. Common silicate minerals are polymorphs of silicon ions arranged in either isolated tetrahedral (olivine), single chains (pyroxene), double chains (amphibole), sheets (mica), or three-dimensional frameworks (feldspar). There are three important groups of silicates: ferromagnesium silicates, e. g. , olivine and pyroxene—common in the mantle feldspar and quartz—common in the crust clay mineral—commonly produced by chemical weatheringOther common mineral classes include carbonates, oxides, sulfates, sulfides, halides, and native metals. A rock is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of minerals. A few rocks consist of only one mineral and a few others consist of non-mineral matter. The properties of rocks and rock names are determined by mineral content (the kinds and proportions of minerals that make up the rock) and texture (the size, shapes, and spatial arrangement of crystals or grains. There are three major rock types: Igneous rocks solidify from molten liqui d (magma); crystal size within igneous rocks is largely determined by the cooling rate of the magma body.Sedimentary rocks are made of sediments formed from the weathering and erosion of any pre-existing rock; deposition, burial and lithification (compaction and cementation) transform loose sediments into sedimentary rocks. Metamorphic rocks are formed by an alteration in the solid state of any preexisting rock by high temperatures and pressure. Terms and Concepts Anion Atomic mass Atomic number Carbonate Cation Cleavage Covalent bond Crystal Crystallization Electron sharing Electron transfer Isotope Magma Mineral Polymorph Precipitate Rock CH 4: igneous rocks SummaryIgneous rocks can be divided into two broad textual classes: coarsely crystalline rocks, which are intrusive (plutonic) and therefore cooled slowly finely crystalline rocks, which are extrusive (volcanic) and cooled rapidly. Within each of these broad textual classes, the rocks are subdivided according to their composit ion. General compositional classes of igneous rocks are felsic, intermediate, mafic and ultramafic, in decreasing silica and increasing iron and magnesium content. Figures 4. 1, 4. 2, 4. 3 and Table 4. 1 summarize common minerals and composition of igneous rocks.The lower crust and upper mantle are typical places where physical conditions induce rock to melt. Temperature, pressure, rock composition, and the presenceof water all affect the melting temperature of the rock: Increase temperature: not all minerals melt at the same temperature; refer to Figures 4. 6 and 4. 7, which explain how fractional crystallization results from Bowen’s reaction series. The mineral composition of the rock affects the melting temperature. Felsic rocks with higher silica content melt at lower temperatures than mafic rocks which contain less silica and more iron/magnesium.Lower the confining pressure: a reduction in pressure can induce a hot rock to melt. A reduction in confining pressure on the h ot upper mantle is thought to generate the basaltic magmas which intrude into the oceanic ridge system to form ocean crust; refer to Figure 4. 15. Add water: the presence of water in a rock can lower its melting temperatures up to a few hundred degrees. Water released from rocks subducting into the mantle along convergent plate boundaries is thought to be an important factor in magma generation at convergent plate boundaries.As subduction begins water trapped in the rock is subjected to increasing temperature and pressure. Eventually the water is released into sedimentary layers above where it melts parts of the overlying plate; refer to Figure 4. 16. Terms and Concepts Andesite Basalt Batholith Bomb Concordant intrusion Country rock Decompression melting Dike Discordant intrusion Diorite Extrusive igneous rock Felsic rock Fractional crystallization Gabbro Granite Granodiorite Intermediate rock Intrusive igneous rock Lava Mafic rock Magma chamber Magmatic differentiation Partial mel ting Pegmatite Peridotite Pluton Rhyolite PorphyryPumice Pyroclast Rhyolite Sill Ultramafic rock Volcanic ash xenolith CH5: sedimentary rocks Summary Plate tectonic processes play an important role in producing depressions (basins) in which sediments accumulate. Sedimentary basins result from rifting, thermal sag, and flexure of the lithosphere. The sedimentary stages of the rock cycle involve the overlapping processes of weathering, erosion, transportation, deposition, burial, and diagenesis. Weathering and erosion produce the clastic particles and dissolved ions that compose sediment. Water, wind, and ice transport the sediment downhill to where it is deposited.Burial and diagenesis harden sediments into sedimentary rocks via pressure, heat, and chemical reactions. The two major types of sediments are clastic and chemical/biochemical. Clastic sediments are formed from rock particles and mineral fragments. Chemical and biochemical sediments originate from the ions dissolved in wate r. Chemical and biochemical reactions precipitate these dissolved ions from solution. Understanding the characteristics of sediments and modern sedimentary environments provides a basis for reconstructing past environmental conditions using the rock record.Sedimentary structures like bedding, ripple marks, and mud cracks, provide important clues about the sedimentary environment. Diagenesis transforms sediment into sedimentary rock. Burial promotes this transformation by subjecting sediments to increasing heat and pressure. Cementation is especially important in the lithification of clastic sediments. The classification of clastic sediments and sedimentary rocks is based primarily on the size of the grains within the rock. The name of chemical and biochemical sediments and sedimentary rock is based primarily on their composition. Terms and Concepts Carbonate rockCarbonate sediment Cementation Chemical weathering Compaction Conglomerate Cross-bedding Crude oil Diagenesis Evaporite ro ck Flexural basin Foraminifera Graded bedding Gravel Limestone Lithification Physical weathering Porosity Ripple Salinity Sandstone Sedimentary basin Sedimentary structure Shale Siliciclastic sediments Sorting Subsidence Thermal subsidence basin CH 6: Metamorphic rocks Summary Metamorphism is the alteration in the solid state of preexisting rocks, including older metamorphic rocks. Increases in temperature and pressure and reactions with chemicalbearing fluids cause metamorphism.Metamorphism typically involves a rearrangement (recrystallization) of the chemical components within the parent rock. Rearrangement of components within minerals is facilitated by: higher temperatures, which increase ion mobility within the solid state; higher confining pressure compacts the rock; directed pressure associated with tectonic activity can cause the rock to shear (smear), which orients mineral grains and generates a foliation; and chemical reactions with migrating fluids may remove or add mater ials and induce the growth of new minerals.The two major types of metamorphism are regional metamorphism, associated with orogenic processes that build mountains, contact metamorphism, caused by the heat from an intruding body of magma, and seafloor metamorphism, also known as metasomatism. Other less common kinds of metamorphism are: burial metamorphism, associated with subsiding regions on continents, high-pressure metamorphism, occurring deep within subduction zones and upper mantle, and shock metamorphism due to meteor impact; refer to Figure 6. 4.Metamorphic rocks fall into two major textural classes: the foliated (displaying a preferred orientation of minerals, analogous to the grain within wood) and granoblastic (granular). The composition of the parent rock and the grade of metamorphism are the most important factors controlling the mineralogy of the metamorphic rock. etamorphism usually causes little to no change in the bulk composition of the rock. The kinds of minerals an d their orientation do change. Mineral assemblages within metamorphic rocks are used by geoscientists as a guide to the original composition of the parent rock and the conditions during metamorphism.Metamorphic rocks are characteristically formed in subduction zones, continental collisions, oceanic spreading centers, and deeply subsiding regions on the continents. Terms and Concepts Amphibolite Burial metamorphism Contact metamorphism Eclogite Foliation Gneiss Granoblastic rock marble Metasomatism Migmatite Phyllite Porphroblast Quartzite Regional metamorphism Schist Seafloor metamorphism Shock metamorphism Slate Adapted for the GEOL101 course by Alfonso Benavides (2012)

Strategic Legal and Social Issues

The Board of Directors of a corporation are vested with the authority to exercise corporate powers, conduct all business and control and hold all properties of the corporation. The supreme authority insofar as the management of the business regular and ordinary affairs of the corporation is vested with the Board of Directors. With great power however comes great responsibility. Directors act as fiduciaries to the corporation, and once elected they must serve the best interests of the corporation and the shareholders. This fiduciary duty arises out of the board’s fiduciary relationship with the corporation and shareholders. (Saboor H. Abduljaami p2) The following are the three-fold duties of a director: duty of obedience; duty of diligence and duty of loyalty. Duty of Obedience The duty of obedience mandates that every director of the corporation must do and perform only those acts designed to achieve its mission. The mission and goals of the corporation are indicated in the articles of incorporation. Thus, the director must constantly check whether his action is within the scope of his authority and in pursuance of the goals of the company as indicated in its articles of incorporation. (â€Å"Role Playing: When do Board Members Step Over the Line†p2) Further, obedience does not only mean compliance with the rules of the corporation but it also means informing the corporation of any act done in violation of the rules of the corporation. This means that every director is mandated to refrain from violating the internal rules of the corporation. As directors they are also required to inform the corporation of any wrongdoing committed by one director that seriously prejudices the interest of the corporation. Thus, a director who willfully and knowingly votes or assents to patently unlawful acts of another director renders him jointly and severally liable for any damage resulting to the corporation. Duty of Diligence The rule is that every director of the corporation is required to manage the corporate affairs and perform his functions with reasonable care and prudence. As an officer of the corporation, the responsibility of the director towards the corporation is not limited to willful breach of trust or excess of power but extends to negligence. This means that even if there was no unlawful intent or evil motive in performing a corporate act, he can still be held liable if it can be established that he acted negligently. This liability of a director for his negligent acts rests upon common law rule which renders the agent liable who violates his authority or neglects his duty to the damage of the principal. It must be stressed however that the degree of diligence required of a director is relative. The standard of diligence is that which an ordinary prudent director could reasonable be expected to exercise in a like position under similar circumstances. The directors are also bound to observe the limits placed upon their powers in accordance with the Articles of Incorporation or charter, and if they transcend such limit and cause such damage, they incur liability. (Ruben Ladia, p. 164) Thus, if a director willfully performs an act which he knows or ought to know to be unauthorized and beyond the scope of his authority, he is clearly liable for any injury. It is however essential to state that though directors are liable for their negligence which has caused serious prejudice to the corporation, they are not liable for losses due to the imprudence or honest error of judgment. This is the concept of business judgment rule which is a defense on the part of the director to escape any liability for his actions. In principle, this states that questions of policy and management are left solely to the honest decision of the board of directors and the courts are without authority to substitute its judgment as against the director. It is said that â€Å"business judgment rule is purely a case law derived concept whereby a court will not review the management decisions of a corporation’s board of directors absent some sort of showing that the board of directors violated their duty of care or loyalty. † (Jon Canfield 1) It must be stressed that directors are not insurers of the property of the corporation or guarantors of the success of the corporation. So long as the director exercised reasonable diligence in the performance of its function the courts will not interfere and render it liable for negligence. Duty of Loyalty It is a general knowledge that there exists a fiduciary relationship between the directors of the corporation and the corporation and its stockholders. As fiduciaries, they are expected to act with utmost candor and fair dealing for the interest of the corporation and without taint of selfish motives. Thus, the directors are not only required to act with reasonable diligence in managing the affairs of the corporation, they are also expected to act with utmost good faith. Thus, the directors of the corporation are expected to first serve the interest of the corporation and their interest later. They are enjoined not to manipulate the affairs of the corporation to the detriment and disregard of the standards of morality and decency. As corporate insiders, the director cannot utilize any inside information they have acquired for their own benefit. He cannot violate the requirements of fair play by doing indirectly what he cannot do directly. Further as directors of the corporation they are not allowed to obtain any personal profit, commissions, bonus or gain for their official actions. Lastly, a director is prohibited from seizing any business opportunity or developing it at the expense and with the facilities of the corporation. Thus, the duty of loyalty requires a fiduciary to act in the best interests of the corporation and in good faith. (Jiangyu Zhu 2) Thus, as corporate officers an undivided loyalty is expected of every director. This fiduciary relationship between the director and the corporation imposes a strict duty to act in accordance with the highest standard which a man of the finest honor and reputation might impose upon himself. It must be stressed that the duty to act with utmost good faith is imposed upon all the directors. The law imposes upon the director liability for violating this duty of loyalty regardless whether the director actually received profit from his undisclosed transaction. This was affirmed in the case of Item Software v. Fassihi. Case of Item Software v. Fassihi. Facts: Item Software entered into transaction with another company. Item Software has a managing director and a marketing director. It specifically provided in its contract with the marketing director that it cannot take advantage of any confidential information it has learned while employed with Item Software. It appears that while Item Software and the other company were engaged in negotiations, its marketing director had been visiting the other company informing it of his intention to form a new company and his intent to transact directly with the other company. The contract between the two companies did not materialize. Item Software later found out about the actuations of its marketing director. He was eventually summarily dismissed from employment and sued by his own company. Issue: whether the respondent should be held liable by the corporation for its act of disloyalty even if it did not profit from its misconduct. Held: It is immaterial whether the director profited from his misconduct. The sole factor to be determined here is that the director committed a breach of its duty when it failed to disclose its transactions with the other company. The duties of a director imposed by law are generally higher than those imposed on an employee because he is more than simply a general manager of the company, he is a fiduciary who, with his fellow directors, is responsible for the success of the company’s business. Section 317 of the Companies Act of 1985 states that: â€Å"it is the duty of the director of a company, who is in any way, whether directly or indirectly, interested in a contract or proposed contract with the company to declare the nature of his interest at a meeting of the directors of the company. † (Section 317 Companies Act of 1985) Thus, the marketing director was in breach of his duties both as an employee and as a director and the Item Software was entitled to recover from him damages for breach of that duty suffered as a result of the termination of the contract.   

History of martial law

Brief History of Martial LawOn September 21, 1972, Marcos issued Proclamation 1081, declaring martial law over the entire country , claiming that it was the last defense against the rising disorder caused by increasingly violent student demonstrations, the alleged threats of communist insurgency by the new Communist Party of the Philippines (CPP), and the Muslim separatist movement of theMoro National Liberation Front (MNLF). One of his first actions was to arrest opposition politicians in Congress and the Constitutional Convention.Initial public reaction to martial law was mostly favourable except in Muslim areas of the south, where a separatist rebellion, led by the MNLF, broke out in 1973. Despite halfhearted attempts to negotiate a cease-fire, the rebellion continued to claim thousands of military and civilian casualties. Communist insurgency expanded with the creation of the National Democratic Front (NDF), an organization embracing the CPP and other communist groups. Under mart ial law the regime was able to reduce violent urban crime, collect unregistered firearms, and suppress communist insurgency in some areas.At the same time, a series of important new concessions were given to foreign investors, including a prohibition on strikes by organized labour, and a land-reform program was launched. In January 1973 Marcos proclaimed the ratification of a new constitution based on the parliamentary system, with himself as both president and prime minister. He did not, however, convene the interim legislature that was called for in that document. Under the president’s command, the military arrested opposition figures, including Benigno Aquino, journalists, student and labor activists, and criminal elements.A total of about 30,000 detainees were kept at military compounds run by the army and the Philippine Constabulary. Weapons were confiscated, and â€Å"private armies† connected with prominent politicians and other figures were broken up. Newspaper s were shut down, and the mass media were brought under tight control. With the stroke of a pen, Marcos closed the Philippine Congress and assumed its legislative responsibilities. During the 1972-81 martial law period, Marcos, invested with dictatorial powers, issued hundreds of presidential decrees, many of which were never published.Like much else connected with Marcos, the declaration of martial law had a theatrical, smoke-and-mirrors quality. The incident that precipitated Proclamation 1081 was an attempt, allegedly by communists, to assassinate Minister of National Defense Enrile. As Enrile himself admitted after Marcos’s downfall in 1986, his unoccupied car had been riddled by machinegun bullets fired by his own men on the night that Proclamation 1081 was signed. Most Filipinos–or at least those well positioned within the economic and social elites–initially supported the imposition of martial law.The rising tide of violence and lawlessness was apparent t o everyone. Although still modest in comparison with the Huk insurgency of the early 1950s, the New People’s Army was expanding, and the Muslim secessionist movement continued in the south with foreign support. Well-worn themes of communist conspiracy–Marcos claimed that a network of â€Å"front organizations† was operating â€Å"among our peasants, laborers, professionals, intellectuals, students, and mass media personnel†Ã¢â‚¬â€œfound a ready audience in the United States, which did not protest the demise of Philippine democracy.The New Society Marcos claimed that martial law was the prelude to creating a â€Å"New Society† based on new social and political values. He argued that certain aspects of personal behavior, attributed to a colonial mentality, were obstacles to effective modernization. These included the primacy of personal connections, as reflected in the ethic of utang na loob, and the importance of maintaining in-group harmony and coh erence, even at the cost to the national community.A new spirit of self-sacrifice for the national welfare was necessary if the country were to equal the accomplishments of its Asian neighbors, such as Taiwan and the Republic of Korea (South Korea). Despite Marcos’s often perceptive criticisms of the old society, Marcos, his wife, and a small circle of close associates, the crony group, now felt free to practice corruption on an awe-inspiring scale. Political, economic, and social policies were designed to neutralize Marcos’s rivals within the elite.The old political system, with its parties, rough-and-tumble election campaigns, and a press so uninhibited in its vituperative and libelous nature that it was called â€Å"the freest in the world,† had been boss-ridden and dominated by the elite since early American colonial days, if not before. The elite, however, composed of local political dynasties, had never been a homogeneous group. Its feuds and tensions, fue led as often by assaults on amor proprio (self-esteem) as by disagreement on ideology or issues, made for a pluralistic system.Marcos’s self-proclaimed â€Å"revolution from the top† deprived significant portions of the old elite of power and patronage. For example, the powerful Lopez family, who had fallen out of Marcos’s favor (Fernando Lopez had served as Marcos’s first vice president), was stripped of most of its political and economic assets. Although always influential, during the martial law years, Imelda Marcos built her own power base, with her husband’s support. Concurrently the governor of Metro Manila and minister of human settlements (a post created for her), she exercised significant powers. Crony CapitalismDuring the first years of martial law, the economy benefited from increased stability, and business confidence was bolstered by Marcos’s appointment of talented technocrats to economic planning posts. Despite the 1973 oil pr ice rise shock, the growth of the gross national product (GNP) was respectable, and the oil-pushed inflation rate, reaching 40 percent in 1974, was trimmed back to 10 percent the following year. Between 1973 and the early 1980s, dependence on imported oil was reduced by domestic finds and successful energy substitution measures, including one of the world’s most ambitious geothermal energy programs.Claiming that â€Å"if land reform fails, there is no New Society,† Marcos launched highly publicized new initiatives that resulted in the formal transfer of land to some 184,000 farming families by late 1975. The law was filled with loopholes, however, and had little impact on local landowning elites or landless peasants, who remained desperately poor. The largest, most productive, and technically most advanced manufacturing enterprises were gradually brought under the control of Marcos’s cronies.For example, the huge business conglomerate owned by the Lopez family, which included major newspapers, a broadcast network, and the country’s largest electric power company, was broken up and distributed to Marcos loyalists including Imelda Marcos’s brother, Benjamin â€Å"Kokoy† Romualdez, and another loyal crony, Roberto Benedicto. Huge monopolies and semimonopolies were established in manufacturing, construction, and financial services. When these giants proved unprofitable, the government subsidized them with allocations amounting to hundreds of millions of pesos.Philippine Airlines, the nation’s international and domestic air carrier, was nationalized and turned into what one author has called a â€Å"virtual private commuter line† for Imelda Marcos and her friends on shopping excursions to New York and Europe. Probably the most negative impact of crony capitalism, however, was felt in the traditional cash-crop sector, which employed millions of ordinary Filipinos in the rural areas. (The coconut industry alone brought income to an estimated 15 million to 18 million people. ) Under Benedicto and Eduardo Cojuangco, distribution and marketing monopolies for sugar and coconuts were established.Farmers on the local level were obliged to sell only to the monopolies and received less than world prices for their crops; they also were the first to suffer when world commodity prices dropped. Millions of dollars in profits from these monopolies were diverted overseas into Swiss bank accounts, real estate deals, and purchases of art, jewelry, and antiques. On the island of Negros in the Visayas, the region developed by Nicholas Loney for the sugar industry in the nineteenth century, sugar barons continued to live lives of luxury, but the farming community suffered from degrees of malnutrition rare in other parts of Southeast Asia.Ferdinand Marcos was responsible for making the previously nonpolitical, professional Armed Forces of the Philippines, which since American colonial times had been modeled o n the United States military, a major actor in the political process. This subversion occurred done in two ways. First, Marcos appointed officers from the Ilocos region, his home province, to its highest ranks. Regional background and loyalty to Marcos rather than talent or a distinguished service record were the major factors in promotion.Fabian Ver, for example, had been a childhood friend of Marcos and later his chauffeur, rose to become chief of staff of the armed forces and head of the internal security network. Secondly, both officers and the rank and file became beneficiaries of generous budget allocations. Officers and enlisted personnel received generous salary increases. Armed forces personnel increased from about 58,000 in 1971 to 142,000 in 1983. Top-ranking military officers, including Ver, played an important policy-making role.On the local level, commanders had opportunities to exploit the economy and establish personal patronage networks, as Marcos and the military e stablishment evolved a symbiotic relationship under martial law. A military whose commanders, with some exceptions, were rewarded for loyalty rather than competence proved both brutal and ineffective in dealing with the rapidly growing communist insurgency and Muslim separatist movement. Treatment of civilians in rural areas was often harsh, causing rural people, as a measure of self-protection rather than ideological commitment, to cooperate with the insurgents.The communist insurgency, after some reverses in the 1970s, grew quickly in the early 1980s, particularly in some of the poorest regions of the country. The Muslim separatist movement reached a violent peak in the mid1970s and then declined greatly, because of divisions in the leadership of the movement and reduced external support brought about by the diplomatic activity of the Marcos government. Relations with the United States remained most important for the Philippines in the 1970s, although the special relationship betw een the former and its ex-colony was greatly modified as trade, investment, and defense ties were redefined.The Laurel-Langley Agreement defining preferential United States tariffs for Philippine exports and parity privileges for United States investors expired on July 4, 1974, and trade relations were governed thereafter by the international General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). During the martial law period, foreign investment terms were substantially liberalized, despite official rhetoric about foreign â€Å"exploitation† of the economy. A policy promoting â€Å"nontraditional† exports such as textiles, footwear, electronic components, and fresh and processed foods was initiated with some success.Japan increasingly challenged the United States as a major foreign participant in the Philippine economy. The status of United States military bases was redefined when a major amendment to the Military Bases Agreement of 1947 was signed on January 6, 1979, reaffirm ing Philippine sovereignty over the bases and reducing their total area. At the same time, the United States administration promised to make its â€Å"best effort† to obtain congressional appropriations for military and economic aid amounting to US$400 million between 1979 to 1983.The amendment called for future reviews of the bases agreement every fifth year. Although the administration of President Jimmy Carter emphasized promoting human rights worldwide, only limited pressure was exerted on Marcos to improve the behavior of the military in rural areas and to end the death-squad murder of opponents. (Pressure from the United States, however, did play a role in gaining the release of Benigno Aquino in May 1980, and he was allowed to go to the United States for medical treatment after spending almost eight years in prison, including long  stretches of time in solitary confinement. )On January 17, 1981, Marcos issued Proclamation 2045, formally ending martial law. Some contr ols were loosened, but the ensuing New Republic proved to be a superficially liberalized version of the crony-dominated New Society. Predictably, Marcos won an overwhelming victory in the June 1981 presidential election, boycotted by the main opposition groups, in which his opponents were nonentities.